The Roman Army

Aquila and insignia

The spiritual centre of a Roman military camp was the »sacellum«, a space consecrated to the flags of the legion in which the  insignia were stored. On special holidays the insignia were anointed, decorated with bands and ornamented with garlands and laurel wreaths. One of these holidays was the »dies natalis aquilae«, the birthday of the aquila of the legion. On this day the soldiers celebrated the anniversary of the founding of the legion. The insignia were the symbols and the guarantors for the religious commitment to the state and for the military virtues and successes. They were ritually worshipped and were the focus of the military religion (»religio castrensis«).

The loss of the insignia was therefore the worst disaster which could happen to a legion. Everything had to be done in order to recapture the insignia. For example, when Emperor Augustus succeeded in regaining the aquila - which Crassus had lost in 53 BC and which had been seized by the Parthians – this event was celebrated by minting special coins.

Besides, the insignia had a strong psychological influence on the soldiers. Before a battle and during a lull in the fighting they would gather around them and they relied on their protection when following the standard bearer into battle. Thus the insignia were a guiding model, a point of reference and also the personification of the moral of the troops. Many military terms which relate to the insignia exist in the Latin language: »signa tollere« (to lift the insignia) which means »to start off« or »signa movere« (to move the insignia) which means »march off« are just two of many examples.

The units of the Roman Army had different types of insignia, either a standard (»signum«) or a flag (»vexillum«). Originally, a unit had one of the following five creatures as a distinguishing insignia: The eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse and the boar. The eagle (»aquila«) finally became the insignia of the legions. Later astrological signs came up in this context. They were used just as often as the »imagines«. These were busts of either the Emperor or other members of the Imperial House. The use of the various insignia was laid down in regulations and was often changed due to a number of military reforms. The »signa« were used for tactical purposes in combat. 30 »signa« existed in a legion because each one of the three maniples in a centuria – of which there were ten in a legion - had its own »signa«.

The »primipilus« was the highest ranking centurion and the leader of the first cohort. He took care of the »aquila« which was the »eagle«-shaped standard of the legion and the religiously worshipped symbol of this unit. The eagle was initially made of silver using the repoussé technique and then gold-plated. Later, the aquila consisted of pure gold. The eagle spread its wings, sat enthroned on top of the standard and held Jupiter’s – the head of the Roman gods - lightning bolts in its claws. The acorn in its beak is also a sign for the supreme god whose holy tree was the oak.

The bearer of the aquila (»aquilifier«) usually was a sergeant of outstanding merit and he was superior to the other bearers. With regard to the rank order, he was situated directly behind the centurion. Apparently, sergeants who were about to be discharged were given the opportunity to do this honourable job. 

The bearer of the standard (»signifer«) was particularly noticeable amongst the legionnaires. He wore the skin of a wolf, a bear or a lion over his armour. The head and the upper jaw of the predator underwent taxidermy. They were pulled over the signifer‘s helmet and the fur hung down his back. The front paws were laying over his shoulders so that they could be tied together in the front. The signifer often had a helmet with a mask which made him completely unrecognisable. That way, he was frightening enough to be able to bear the religiously worshipped insignia as a symbol of the whole legion.

The insignia were not only tactically important, but they were also a desired trophy by the enemy. Therefore, the "signifer’s" job was quite challenging. He did not only have to survive combat while being handicapped by the standard, but in his elevated position he also served as an inspiring example for the other soldiers. He could defend himself with the small, round cavalry shield (»parma equestris«) which was his only weapon.
The cash management was another one of the signifer’s functions. Consequently, he needed to be able to write and calculate well. Signifers could therefore ascend to centurion, the influential leader of a centuria.